Almost universal in middle and upper class cooking all over Europe was the almond, which was in the ubiquitous and highly versatile almond milk, which was used as a substitute in dishes that otherwise required eggs or milk, though the bitter variety came along much later. Butter and lard, especially after the Black Death, was used in considerable quantities in the northern and northwestern regions, especially in the Low Countries. Olive oil was among the ubiquitous ingredients around the Mediterranean, but remained an expensive import in the north where oil of poppy, walnut, hazel and filbert was the most affordable alternative.
Dried figs and dates occurred quite frequently in the north, but were used rather sparingly in cooking. Citrus fruits (though not the kinds most common today) and pomegranates were common around the Mediterranean. In the south, wine was the common drink for both rich and poor alike (though the commoner usually had to settle for cheap second pressing wine) while beer was the commoner's drink in the north and wine an expensive import. In the British Isles, northern France, the Low Countries, the northern German-speaking areas, Scandinavia and the Baltic the climate was generally too harsh for the cultivation of grapes and olives. More or less distinct areas in medieval Europe where certain foodstuffs dominated can be discerned.
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